Assessment Interviews Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Assessment Interviews - Essay Example After your initial meeting, add any notes of referrals, partnerships with other agencies, counselors or probation officers you may need to assist this client. The client may be working with many therapists, depending on the situation, and you will need to provide information accordingly, and receive pertinent client behavioral assessment from these departments as well. Before arriving at a correctional facility, many people have interviewed, researched, and assessed the client/prisoner in order to determine counseling needs, safety precautions, and personnel management once inside. Each facility determines their own assessment and what information they need for each person; however, most use similar categories for their intake. The categories are crime/offense; security risk; physical and mental health issues including suicide watch, if applicable; and substance abuse or addiction. If substance abuse or addiction is part of the client's intake, they bypass normal integration into general correctional facility population and placed near medical personnel to go through detoxification. Once the withdrawal process completes, counseling is assigned and sessions with substance abuser/support groups. One thing that surprised me about the intake process was the educational information taken - each prisoner assessed for level of comprehension, reading ability, and learning skills. Learning abilities affects how the guards and counseling speak to them, how they explain activities, procedures, and standards. If the client/prisoner is at a low reading and comprehension level, they will not be able to understand larger words and may get confused easily. It is imperative to get the social circle and support people of each prisoner, such as family, friends, and intimate relationship partners. The client may have visits from certain people who affect them specific ways, and it is needed to know who they are in order to determine an action plan in counseling. DSM-IV Mental Disorder Definition The Diagnostic Statistic Manual IV (DSM-IV) defines mental disorder as a "significantly behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress, such as pain, or disability of one or more areas of functioning, or with a significantly increased risk or suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom4". In addition, this syndrome or pattern must not merely be an expectable and culturally sanctioned response to a particular event like the death of a loved one. Whatever the symptom's original cause, the persistent and intensity of the manifestation of a behavioral, psychological or biological dysfunction is required in order to classify it as a mental disorder. In addition, while mental disorders explained in the DSM-IV, diagnoses are generalized and categorized based on symptoms. There is a misconception of using the DSM-IV to

Special Education Strategy Notebook Essay Example for Free

Special Education Strategy Notebook Essay Self monitoring is a strategy that is often used in classrooms with children who have trouble staying on task and focusing. It is a method that involves a student taking responsibility of themselves academically and behaviorally and recording when they find themselves not on task. In essence, a sheet of paper is given to a child and a noise is made at certain intervals during the class day. This noise could be something that only the specific child hears (such as in an ear piece) or it could be something that is heard by the entire class. Either way, the student who is participating in self monitoring simply puts a tally mark in a column for â€Å"on task† or â€Å"off task† on their sheet of paper every time the noise sounds off and at the end of the day both student and teacher can see how many times the student found him or herself off task. This helps put into perspective for the student how much he or she pays attention in a regular day and typically causes them to try harder to remain on task even more the following day. It is important that a teacher lets the student know exactly what is meant by â€Å"on task† and â€Å"off task† so that the student understands 100% what is expected of him or her, and it is also important that the sound itself not be distracting from the lesson. Eventually, a student can be weaned off the external cues of the sound, and will begin self monitoring without it, which is ideal. B. How do we know that self monitoring works? Put simply, we know that self monitoring works because it has been studied over and over by numerous researchers and has been proven effective at least the majority of those times. These studies confirm that this strategy helps manage students who are off task in the classroom due to various disruptive, learning related and social behaviors. Children of many ages were tested, ranging from ages as young as 4 to kids who are in high school, and the findings were consistent. In nearly all of the tests described in the article I researched, self-monitoring was said to have â€Å"decreased off task behaviors dramatically† or â€Å"decreased inappropriate behaviors† or â€Å"decrease talking out behavior,† etc (Hallahan, D. P. Husdon, K. ). C. When should a teacher use self monitoring? As a strategy in a school setting, self monitoring typically works best for students who have problems primarily in attention. This is not a strategy that actually helps a student learn anything in particular, so the skills for learning material has to be already within a students capability but who cannot focus or remain on task long enough to apply these said skills. In laments terms, self monitoring works best when used for applying skills not when being introduced to new ones. Self monitoring can be used successfully for students with attentional tasks in really any classroom setting. It works great for â€Å"seat work†, when a child is assigned independent work that they must take sole responsibility for finishing but can also work in a group. Group work often has other students who keep the self monitor on task, but if this were not the case self monitoring would still be helpful. D. What does a teacher need to do to implement self monitoring? It is important that a teacher use each part of the procedure of self monitoring, including tones, recording sheets and training. Before implementing all of these procedures, a student needs to be introduced to the idea. It is imperative that a student have a good explanation of why they are required to keep record of their behavior when other students are not. A child needs to be given explicit instructions as to what he or she needs to do; this includes a description of what on task and off task are in the teacher’s terms, what the tone or sound will be, and how often the sound will go off, etc. Once the directions have been given to the child it is also important to go over the recording sheet with him or her and give examples of what will happen during class when he or she is to be recording their behavior. Once a child seemingly understands what is expected, feedback becomes very important. If he or she gets off task, the teacher needs to correct the behavior and then move on. At the same time, if a student has very good behavior it is also important to praise that. After the student gets used to this procedure, a teacher can begin to wean him or her off having to hear the tone to monitor their behavior. This is the ideal situation because then a student simply checks himself without a reminder and will continue to do so. E. How does a teacher know if self monitoring is working? Evaluating whether this strategy is working for a particular student is very important because if it is not, then there could actually be harm coming from trying to use it. Evaluating also leaves room for modifications that could help different students at different times. The basic way to see if self monitoring is working is to simply gather data on the student’s attention to a task before using the strategy and then compare that data with what you find after the student has begun to self monitor. To collect data before introducing self monitoring, a teacher can simply do the monitoring herself; use a tone and record the attentiveness of that child at each sound. A good practice to collect the original data would be to compare the target student and a student with average attentiveness. If the comparison shows that the level of attention seems to have improved after the strategy is implemented, it has probably worked and vice versa. F. Where can a teacher find more information on self monitoring? There are numerous ways to find out more information on self monitoring from articles, websites, books, etc. Here is a list of multiple sources where more information can be found (Hallahan, D. P. Hudson, K. ) Blick, D. W. , Test, D. W. (1987). Effects of self-recording on high-school students’ on-task behavior. Hallahan, D. P. , Lloyd, J. W. , Stoller, L. (1982). Improving attention with self-monitoring: A manual for teachers. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Learning Disabilities Research Institute. Hallahan, D. P. , Marshall, K. J. , Lloyd, J. W. (1981). Self-recording during group instruction: Effects on attention to task. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 407-413. G. Self Monitoring Bibliography. Hallahan, D. P. , Hudson, K. G. (2002). Teaching tutorial 2: Self monitoring of attention. Retrieved from www. teachingLD. org Shimabukuro, S. M. , Prater, M. A. , Jenkins, A. , Edelen-Smith, P. (1999). The effects of self-monitoring of academic performance on students with learning disabilities and ADD/ADHD. Education and Treatment of Children, 22, 397- 414. Webber, J. , Scheuermann, B. , McCall, C. , Coleman, M. (1993). Research on self-monitoring as a behavior management technique in special education classrooms: A descriptive review. Remedial and Special Education, 14, 38-56. Workman, E. A., Helton, G. B. , Watson, P. J. (1982). Self-monitoring effects in a four-year-old child:An ecological behavior analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 20, 57-64. II. Time Delay A. What is time delay? Time delay is a strategy that focuses on weaning the use of prompts during teaching and educational practices and is most often used with students who have Autism Spectrum disorders. When instructing someone who has a particular learning disability, sometimes he or she needs additional prompting right after the material has been presented; this could include least-to-most prompting, simultaneous prompting, etc. There are two types of time delay; progressive and constant. Progressive time delay takes the immediate additional help given to particular students and lessens it each time material is taught. The time in between the original presentation and the additional help is lengthened as a child gets more comfortable learning and proficient. Constant time delay occurs when a teacher gives no time between the original instruction and the added prompt, then continually lengthens that amount of time when proficiency strengthens (Neitzel, J). B. How do we know that Time Delay is effective? In order to be used in schools for students with Autism Spectrum disorders, time delay had to be researched numerous times and found to be an evidence based practice. The National Professional Development Center on ASD has defined what they mean by â€Å"evidence based practice† to mean that it includes â€Å"randomized design studies, single-subject design studies, and combination of evidence. † Randomized design studies must include two experimental group design studies and they must be conducted by highly qualified researchers. Three separate investigators must have also conducted five high quality single-subject design studies. Once this is all done, the evidence from both must be combined to see allow researchers to see if time delay works in real life settings with ASD (Time Delay). C. When should a teacher use time delay? Time delay is a great strategy for a teacher to use when a student in her class has an Autism Spectrum disorder. It has been found that it is most effective when used with children and youth rather than older students, regardless of cognitive level and expressive abilities. According to the evidence listed above, time delay is very effective during the specific ages of 6-11. Teachers can instruct these specific students effectively on a variety of material using time delay such as academics, play/leisure, language/communication, and also social skills. It is important that all of this teaching be done in clinical environments, though, because that was where the studies were done and showed improvement (Neitzel, J) . D. What does a teacher need to do to implement Time Delay? There are multiple steps that a teacher must work his or way through in order to implement the time delay strategy. Both progressive and constant time delay procedures involve the same three steps of implementation; a cue and target stimulus, learner response, and feedback or consequence. Without all three of these components, time delay cannot be an effective strategy to use in the classroom while teaching students with Autism Spectrum disorders. The target stimulus, also called the antecedent, is what a teacher wants the student to respond by doing when posed with the cue. The cue is a signal that helps the student figure out what behaviors he or she should be exhibiting. When trying out the time delay strategy, it is important to keep the cues consistent so that the student knows what is expected of him or her during every activity. Learner response, the second necessary component of time delay, is the behavior that teachers want the student to pick up on. The feedback is the reinforcement of a behavior. Positive feedback when a student does something correctly is essential for that behavior to become consistent. On the opposite end, negative feedback when something is done incorrectly is just as important so a student knows to try to behave a different way. This â€Å"negative feedback† is known as a correction procedure and involves a constant repetition of the cue and prompts necessary for the student to exhibit the correct behavior (Neitzel, J Worley, M). Knowing the broad steps for implementing time delay, a teacher must also know the specifics. There are multiple steps that one must go through in order to effectively use the strategy. Step one is identifying the skill or behavior and define them in an observable measure and identify it as wither a discrete task or a chained task. A teacher must also then define learner response behaviors so that they can easily be identified as either correct or incorrect. Next, a teacher needs to determine a students current skills. After this is determined and recorded, an educator must select the target stimulus and cue and clearly explain this to the child, and then do the same with the controlling prompt. Next, reinforces must be identified and the response interval should be decided upon (Neitzel, J. Worley, M). E. How does a teacher know if Time Delay is working? Just as with any teaching strategy, the way to tell if Time Delay is working is to compare student ability before and after the delay is implemented. Before a student is introduced to this strategy a teacher can instruct a student on anything in particular and record the amount of correct and incorrect responses. After this data is recorded, it would be important to introduce time delay and instruct the child on the correct responses, stimuli, etc. Once that is all introduced, the teacher could teach material and again keep track of correct and incorrect responses. If the amount of incorrect responses decreases and the amount of correct responses increases, there is a very good chance this change is due to the implementation of time delay. F. Where can a teacher find more information on Time Delay? Odom, S. L. , Brantlinger, E. , Gersten, R. , Horner, R. D. , Thompson, B. , Harris, K. (2004). Quality indicators for research in special education and guidelines for evidence-based practices: Executive summary. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children Division for Research. Rogers, S. J. , Vismara, L. A. (2008). Evidence based comprehensive treatments for early autism. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(1), 8-38. Ledford, J. R. , Gast, D. L. , Luscre, D. , Ayres, K. M. (2008). Observational and incidental learning by children with autism during small group instruction. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 86-103. Liber, D. B. , Frea, W. D. , Symon, J. B. G. (2008). Using time delay to improve social play skills with peers for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 312-323. G. Time Delay Bibliography. Neitzel, J. (2009). Overview of time delay. Chapel Hill, NC: National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina. Neitzel, J. , Wolery, M. (2009). Steps for implementation: Time delay. Chapel Hill, NC: The National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina. Time delay. (2010). National Professional Development Center on ASD, Retrieved from http://autismpdc.fpg. unc. edu/sites/autismpdc. fpg. unc. edu/files/TimeDelay_Steps_0. pdf Mnemonics A. What is Mnemonics? Mnemonics are devices used to help people remember and recall things that are somewhat hard to remember on their own. Put simply, the job of a mnemonic is to make the difficult task of memorization a little bit simpler. Using mnemonics helps to combine a presentation a person is comfortable with information that needs to be remembered; the association between the presentation and the information makes recall easier (Bringham, R Bringham, M). There is a link between new information and prior knowledge in the presentation of a mnemonic, and often they employ both visual and acoustic cues. There are many different types of mnemonics. The keyword method works very well with new information, and is directly tied to something that a student already knows. For example, if there is a vocabulary word that a student is trying to learn that sounds like a word they are already familiar with, they can associate the two words together to remember the one they do not know. This association can be made with a picture, or just by memory. Another mnemonic method is the peg-word method. Peg words are similar to keywords but they are known for their rhyming proxies for numbers to help students remember numbered or ordered information. A third mnemonic is known as letter strategies, including acronyms and acrostics. An acronym is a words whose individual letters can represent elements in lists of information. Acrostics are sentences whose first letters represent the information that needs to be remembered (Scruggs Mastropieri, 2002). There are also mnemonics for remembered how to spell, such as pictures with specific letters decorated. B. How do we know that Mnemonics are effective? There have been numerous evidence based research studies done to prove the effectiveness of mnemonics. These studies have shown that students taught material mnemonically have had a significant amount of more success than those students who were not taught in tis way. A specific study was done by Forness, Kavale, Blum and Lloyd in 1997 that concluded that for special education students, instruction using mnemonics showed the most positive results (Forness, S. R. , Kavale, K. A. , Blum, I. M. , Lloyd, J. W. 1997). Building off of these findings, other studies on special education have been compiled and summarized to show that the average child with a learning disability scored 43% correct, while the average mnemonically taught student scored 75% correct (Mastropieri Scruggs, 1989). Also, classroom teacher applications of mnemonic techniques have suggested that these strategies are very effective in inclusive classrooms, in some cases raising the performance of students with learning disabilities to that of the normally achieving students (Mastropieri, Sweda, Scruggs; 2000; Uberti, Scruggs, Mastropieri, in press). C. When should Mnemonics be used? The fantastic thing about mnemonics is that they can virtually be used whenever, with any student in any subject. This strategy has been experimentally validated in english vocabulary, foreign language vocabulary, earth science, physical science, U. S. history, world history, letter recognition, math facts, and spelling. Moreover, it has been experimentally validated that mnemonics not only works in all of these subject areas for average students buy for students with learning disabilities as well. Mnemonics are also appropriate to use with students of any age, ranging from Kindergarten to college. Younger students typically do not have to recall the same amount of facts that are required of those older than them, but they are still useful in learning things such as the alphabet (Levin, 1993). Thus, this strategy is a great one for teachers to use frequently whenever large amounts of information are presented that must be remembered or recalled (Bringham, R. Bringham M. 2001). D. What does a teacher need to do to implement Mnemonics? Mnemonics should be used by all teachers when introducing information that must be remembered and there are certain ways to go about doing so. At first, the teacher should be the leader of mnemonics and should directly guide the students into coming up with specific ways to remember information. When a teacher is directly involved with every step of creating a mnemonic it is called maximum support. As students become more proficient in using mnemonics, though, it is important for the teacher to take a few steps back and let them go on their own. Once a certain level of proficiency is met, a teacher moves on to intermediate supports. Now, a teacher is still there if needed but most of the responsibility is turned over to the students and their peers to create and use mnemonics. After this step, a teacher can allow students to work on mnemonics independently. Following these steps help to not overwhelm students, and to help them to learn how to use the strategy on their own so that when they move to a different class or school they can take their knowledge of mnemonics with them and continue to use them. E. How does a teacher know if Mnemonics are working? The purpose of mnemonics is memorization so the best way to test if the strategy is working is to frequently question and test students on the information that they are supposed to be learning using the mnemonics. Some students might already know the information or might have guessed, so it is also important to ask them how they remembered the answer they gave. This way, a teacher can easily see if it is the mnemonic helping them recall the information or if it is something else entirely. Students, too, can alert a teacher as to whether or not the strategy is working by simply saying mnemonics are helpful to them specifically or not. F. Where can a teacher find more information about Mnemonics? Mastropieri, M. A. , Scruggs, T. E. (2000). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction. Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall/Merrill. (Chapter 8, Attention and Memory) Mastropieri, M. A. , Scruggs, T. E. (1991). Teaching students ways to remember: Strategies for learning mnemonically. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Brigham, F. J. , Scruggs, T. E. , Mastropieri, M. A. (1995). Elaborative maps for enhanced learning of historical information: Uniting spatial, verbal, and imaginal information. Journal of Special Education, 28, 440-460. Bulgren, J. A. , Schumaker, J. B. , Deshler, D. D. (1994). The effects of a recall enhancement routine on the test performance of secondary students with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research Practice, 9, 2-11. G. Mnemonics Bibliography Bringham, R. , Bringham, M. (n. d. ). A focus on mnemonic instruction. (2001). Current Practice Alerts, (5), Retrieved from www. dldcec. org/alerts/ Scruggs, T. , Mastropieri, M. (n. d. ). Teaching tutorial: Mnemonic instruction. (2002). Division for Learning Disabilities , 1-26. Retrieved from www. teachingLD. org Mastropieri, M. A. , Scruggs, T. E. (1989a). Constructing more meaningful relationships: Mnemonic instruction for special populations. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 83-111. Forness, S. R. , Kavale, K. A. , Blum, I. M. , Lloyd, J. W. (1997). Mega-analysis of meta-analysis: What works in special education and related services. Teaching Exceptional Children, 29(6), 4-9. Mastropieri, M. A. , Sweda, J. , Scruggs, T. E. (2000). Teacher use of mnemonic strategy instruction. Learning Disabilities Research Practice, 15, 69-74. Levin, J. R. (1993). Mnemonic strategies and classroom learning: A twenty-year report card. The Elementary School Journal, 94(2), 235-244. Task Analysis A. What is task analysis? Task analysis is a learning strategy that involved breaking a learnable skill into smaller steps that are more manageable for students who need it (Franzone 2009). This strategy is something that is used by every single person at least once in their life, even if done so unconsciously. It is the only way to ever really learn complete processes, for example you have to walk before you can run. By breaking skills into smaller chunks, we all eventually learn specific tasks as if they are second nature and learn to not have to follow the original steps posed. It is necessary, though, to express the different parts that make up the whole (the skill being learned) until absolute mastery has been achieved (Grove 2012). B. How do we know that task analysis is effective? There are certain criterion that strategies have to meet before they can be used in schools, including in the special ed classroom. Task analysis meets these requirements and has been tested and proven in numerous evidence based practices. To be considered evidence based practice for people with Autism Spectrum disorder, efficacy must be established through peer-reviewed research in scientific journals using randomized or quasi-experimental design studies, single-subject design studies, and then a combination of evidence. High quality randomized design studies are categorized by the absence of critical design flaws that create confounds and the demonstration of experimental control at least three times in each study (Horner, Nathan, Odom, Rogers) . When should a teacher use task analysis? Task analysis is a strategy that can be used very effectively with children who have an autism spectrum disorder, no matter their cognitive level and expressive communicative skills. Children from preschool age to high school age have shown through studies that task analysis works and is an effective practice for older learners as well. It is also a good practice to use when teaching educators how to interact and teach their students with autism spectrum disorders. Task analysis has been proven to help all of these students in multiple areas. There are ways to use task analysis to teach in a school setting, in a classroom (inclusive or not). Also, there is evidence that it works in home and community settings. For instance, teaching a child with a significant disability how to complete regular everyday tasks such as brushing teeth, brushing hair, showering, etc becomes more easily possible if you employ task analysis (Franzone 2009). D. What does a teacher need to do to implement Task Analysis? In order to implement a task analysis in a particular classroom, a teacher must follow a set of steps. Step one is to identify the target skill. This step involves targeting a specific skill that is to be learned by the student with Autism Spectrum disorder. To do this, an educator must use the learner’s Individual Education Plan/Individual Family Service Plan goals. The skill should consist a series of discrete steps, so as to make learning it a bit easier. For example, washing dishes is an acceptable skill to target. Turning on a sink or preparing, serving and cleaning up dinner would be either too simple or too hard. Step two involves identifying the prerequisite skills of the learner and the materials needed to teach the task. Step three is breaking the skill into components. This is the step where true task analysis really begins; where the skills are actually broken up into steps. Next, a teacher needs to confirm that the task is completely analyzed in order to sure no step is left out because it would compromise the entire activity. Step five involves determining how the teacher will actually teach the skill. Last, intervention must be implemented and progress must be monitored so that changes can be made if need be. E. How does a teacher know if Task Analysis is working? Before task analysis is implemented, it is important for teachers to closely monitor the student in question to see the skills they have the most trouble with. Keeping record of this will help to see if any bounds in learning have been made once the strategy has been put in place. Observation is key, before and after implementation, and if it is done carefully and cautiously enough a teacher can directly see the impact of the strategy after a student has learned the skill he or she was asked to learn. F. Where can a teacher find more information on task analysis? Alcantara, P. R. (1994). Effects of videotape instructional package on purchasing skills of children with autism. Exceptional Children, 61(1), 40-55. Browder, D. , Trela, K. , Jimenez, B. (2007). Training teachers to follow a task analysis to engage middle school students with moderate and severe developmental disabilities in grade appropriate literacy. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(4), 206-219. Hagopian, L. , Farrell, D. , Amari, A. (1996). Treating total liquid refusal with backward chaining and fading. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(4), 573-575. Liber, D. , Frea, W. , Symon, J. (2008). Using time-delay to improve social play skills with peers for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 312-323. Luscre, D. , Center, D. (1996). Procedures for reducing dental fear in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26(5), 547-556. G. Task Analysis Bibliography Franzone, E. (2009). Overview of task analysis. Madison, WI: National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin. Grove, A. (2013, August 08). Bright hub: Task analysis in special education. Retrieved from http://www. brighthubeducation. com/special-ed-learning-disorders/25800-how-task-analysis- Horner, R. , Carr, E. , Halle, J. , McGee, G. , Odom, S. , Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 165-180. Nathan, P. , Gorman, J. M. (2002). A guide to treatments that work. NY: Oxford University Press. Odom, S. L. , Brantlinger, E. , Gersten, R. , Horner, R. D. , Thompson, B. , Harris, K. (2004). Quality indicators for research in special education and guidelines for evidence-based practices: Executive summary. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children Division for Research. Rogers, S. J. , Vismara, L. A. (2008). Evidence based comprehensive treatments for early autism. Journal of Clinical Child Adolescent Psychology, 37(1), 8-38. Szidon, K. , Franzone, E. (2009). Task Analysis. Madison, WI: National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin. Functional Behavior Analysis What is functional behavior analysis? A functional behavior analysis is a variety of methods to identify and define behaviors that need to be changed. It is the process of gathering and analyzing information about a specific student’s behavior and accompanying circumstances in order to determine reasons behind certain behaviors. These strategies help teachers identify interventions that will help to reduce these behaviors and help develop appropriate ones to fill the place of the ones being reduced. Functional behavior analysis relies on a number of techniques and strategies to identify the reasons behind each behavior and to help IEP teams select the interventions that are to be used. It should be integrated throughout the process of developing, reviewing, and revising a student’s Individualized Education Plan (McIntyre, 2001). How do we know that Functional Behavior Analysis is effective? Functional behavior analysis has been researched multiple times by different qualified researchers and has been found to show promising results in student achievement the vast majority of the time. Studies have been conducted multiple times to rule out any researcher error and students have shown drastic differences from before the strategy was implemented to after it was done. It is also important to note that Functional Behavior Assessment has obviously been proven effected in that it has become a part of national legislature, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. As stated in the act, it is mandatory that a student with known behavior problems be supported with this strategy (Jordan, 2006). When should a teacher use Functional Behavior Analysis Often times Functional Behavior Analysis is implemented on students with severe cognitive or communication disabilities such as autism (McIntyre, 2001). Even though this is so, ff ever there is a time that teachers become concerned about particular student with a disability, it is required by law (IDEA) to implement the functional behavior assessment process so that they can determine why the child in question is acting in such a way. This strategy helps to identify why a particular behavior occurred, and in determining this, a teacher can then begin to create interventions that will help the student avert from that negative behavior and replace it with a good behavior. It is important that teachers intervene with positive behavioral actions before the problem behaviors occur if at all possible. What does a teacher need to do to implement Functional Behavior Analysis? IDEA does not ever specifically define how a functional behavior analysis should be implemented, and often it depends on the needs of every specific child. There are, though, very specific steps that must occur in order for the strategy to work. First, a teacher must identify the behaviors that need to be changed, or at least the most serious of multiple strategies. In identifying the behaviors it is imperative to determine when and where they occur and when and where they do not. This will allow a teacher to try to determine the triggers for that specific student. After the behavior(s) are identified, a teacher must collect data on the specific child’s performance in many different ways, and have as many sources possible. After all of this data is collected and recorded a hypothesis needs to be developed as to what could be the cause of these specific behaviors based on the data collected. This helps predict where the teacher needs to target the change that will be made. Next, as with any other experiment, the hypothesis must be tested. Using positive interventions, the child’s specific team makes changes as needed to there Individualized Education Plan or Behavior Intervention Plan. After all of this is done the interventions need to be evalua.

Research Methods Aims And Objectives In Business Business Essay

Research Methods Aims And Objectives In Business Business Essay The purpose of this Chapter is to discuss and justify the methodology used to effectively investigate the phenomenon informing the research title which is; The Impact of a company managed online community on purchase decision and brand loyalty Firstly, this chapter explains the conceptual structure of the research which will describe how the author is going to carry out the research. Then, explains research method types and methods use to retrieve the collected data by primary research. Research methodology explains the overall structure of the study. According to Croswell J (2010) methodology is the analysis of principle methods, rules and evaluation employed by a researcher. The discussion is focused on matters regarding the purpose of research, research philosophy, research approach, research strategy, data collection, data analysis, and quality standards. 3.2 Research aims and objectives The study aims seek the dimensions of an online community hosted by a company and how it affects consumers purchase decision. In addition, this study investigates how an online community can attribute to generate their brand loyalty through its own brand community. These are the objectives: To investigate a company managed online community and characteristics To identify key influencer in online purchase decision To investigate the relationship a company managed online community and consumer purchase decision To find out the relationship between a company managed online community and brand loyalty 3.3. Research Process The research process used to define the approach of the research in the study in exhaustive. In figure 3.1 research process onion describes the issue underlying the choice of data collection methods (Saunders et al. 2009). Below figure shows the overview of the researchers methodology towards this research. Figure 3.1 Research Process Onion. Source: Created by the Author, adopted from Saunders et al (2009:108) Also, figure 3.2 shows the outline of process for this research. Figure 3.2 Process of the authors research Source: Created by the Author(2010) 3.4. Purpose of research There are three different types of research, and Yin (2009) writes that these are exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive. The purpose of the research determined which one of these to use in order to be able to fulfil this purpose. Saunders et al (2009) describe exploratory research as a way to find or look for new insight or to see what is going on. They further state that it is especially good to use if the purpose of research is to increase the understanding of a problem. Gliner et al(2009) complement the characteristics of exploratory research by adding that this type of research calls for flexibility, since new information can change the direction of the research. Gliner et al(2009) conclude that descriptive research is characterized by that the problem is clear and well structured. Saunders et al (2009) writes that it is necessary to have a good picture of the problem before the data collection. The focus of an explanatory study is to find interrelations between the variables in the studied situation or problem (Saunders et al, 2009). Saunders et al (2009) also states that analysis of quantitative data can show correlations between factors which gives the researcher a picture of the relationships involved. The overall purpose of this research was to investigate the area of online communities and its influence on purchase decision and brand loyalty. The goal was to seek out if marketing in these specific media channels are more accepted among consumers, and why this is the case, in order to gain a better understanding of their effectiveness and influence. This led us to use a both exploratory and explanatory approach. In the data collection and in the analysis we explore, and in the findings and conclusions we begin to explain. 3.5 Research Philosophy The research philosophy is determined by the philosophical points of views, as there are different approaches about the way in which the knowledge is urbanized and judged as suitable. Thus, the research philosophy relates to the development of knowledge and the knowledges nature (Saunders et al, 2009). The literature suggests three main approaches in which to conduct a research process and all of them have an important part and role in business and management. These are Positivism, Realism and Phenomenology. 3.5.1 Positivism Positivism is described as the conventional way of research and it acquires a clear quantitative approach to find out phenomena as an alternative of qualitative approach (Croswell, 2009). That is also said that positivism is very important approach in natural science (Remenyi, 2002). The understanding of this idea may not be proven but the philosophy based on positivism is far more powerful than the ideas for reaching targets and achieving goals. Positivism is very important research philosophies for creating new ideas. Thus, positivistic research tries to identify the non-financial motivation techniques provided by Tesco-express. The researcher uses the idealistic approach of positivism while using a questionnaire with a group of people. 3.5.2 Realism Another approach which relates to the positivism is realism (Saunders et al, 2007). According to Kothari, (2005) Realism is the source of many ideas, belief and opinions of human. 3.5.3 Interpretive Interpretive studies presume that people produce and correlate their own subjective and inter subjective meanings as they interact with the world around them. Interpretive researchers thus attempt to understand phenomena through accessing the meanings participants assign to them (Orlikowski and Baroudi 1991). Here researcher has decided to choose a Positivism philosophy, based on the aim of the research. The reason behind choosing this approach is responses does not influence the researchers belief and the knowledge (Proctor 2006). Also Positivism is one of the strongest research philosophies for creating new ideas. In addition to this, according to Gill (2002), the importance of a highly controlled methodology facilitates replication and experimental explanation to statistical analysis. 3.6 Research Approach There are two different types of approach for research. These are deductive and inductive theories(Bryman, 08). Deductive theory represents the commonest view of the nature of the relationship between theory and social research(Bryman, 08). First, theory and the hypothesis come and drive the process of gathering data. On the other hand, inductive process involves observations first and generalise the theory after the observations. This study is a business problem, more specifically how online community hosted by a company influence its consumers. Therefore, the aim of this study is to understand of the consumers who use online communities as a tool of interaction. Therefore, this study needs deductive approach. 3.7 Research Method There are mainly two types of research strategies which we can choose: quantitative and qualitative. These approaches are depending upon the structure and the purpose of the study(Bryman, 2010). Quantitative research can be constructed as a research strategy which collect and analyse quantitative data. Quantitative research requires a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, also it has incorporated the practice the natural scientific model and norms of natural scientific model and positivism approach(Bryman, 2010). A quantitative research approach used numbers ask base for the analysis instead of words like a qualitative would do. Blaxter et al(2010) adds to this explanation by describing that quantitative research uses a large-scale set of data. Qualitative research is more exploratory and focuses on smaller numbers and depth data. Qualitative data is mostly collected using conversation, and unstructured and semi-structured interviews. Quantitative data, the corresponding are; structured observations, interviews and surveys, and attitude scaling. By contrast, qualitative research emphasizes words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data(Bryman, 2010). Qualitative research data is collected from focus groups, in-depth interviews and observations. Qualitative research can be used to understand more deeply consumers attitudes towards purchase decision. But qualitative research is hard to analyse, and evaluate. Also, small number of target audiences cannot be represented whole population. For this research, a quantitative study is better because of the need for several different views on the questions and to decrease the factor of that different people think differently. 3.8 Research Strategy The decision of which strategy to use can be guided by the form of research question, the degree of control needed of behavioural events and if the focus is on current or historical events (Yin, 2003). The different choices of strategies available are; experiment, survey, case-study, grounded theory, ethnography and action research (Saunders et al, 2000). Experiments are commonly used in natural sciences and psychology, and are characterized by for example the introduction of planned changes on the variables in the experiment, and control of the other variables (Saunders et al, 2000). Surveys allow for the gathering of large quantities of data from a population in an economically efficient way (Saunders et al, 2000). Saunders et al (2000) also describe this method as having the advantage of that the analysis of the data will allow for easy comparison between the respondents. A case study is especially useful for gaining rich and detailed data (Saunders et al, 2000). They also state that case-studies are particularly good to use when asking how, what and why questions (ibid). Grounded theory is based on that a data collection is performed without the previous construction of a theoretical framework (Saunders et al, 2000). The initially gathered data is then used to make predictions that then are tested in the later stages of the data collection (Saunders et al, 2000). Moreover, the purpose of ethnography is defined by Saunders et al (2000) in the following way; The purpose is to interpret the social world the research subjects inhabit in the same way in which they interpret it (Saunders et al, 2000, p.95). They also state that ethnography is not commonly used in business research (ibid). Action research is however dedicated to researching the management of change, and the researcher often must participate in the setting where the change occurs. (Saunders et al, 2000). At first, action research, grounded theory, ethnography and experiments were discarded from the planning because of the mismatch between these methods and the purpose of research. After this, the search for a method with a match between the purpose of research and the characteristics of the method started. In table 2 below, these different criterions for the use of a survey are presented. 3.9 Data Collection Methods Bradley stated that the term primary data can describe information which is collected for a special purpose. On the other hand, secondary data has already collected by someone else for their purposes(Bradley, 2007). 3.9.1 Primary data When executing a quantitative method of data collection, the most common way of collecting data is through the use of questionnaires as it gives greater opportunity to gather information from a large number of respondents without a great amount of resources (Johannessen Tufte, 2007; Saunders, Lewis Thornhill, 2000). For the empirical research a self-completion questionnaire was deemed appropriate. This is because the research was conceptualised around obtaining information from, or about, a defined set of people or population; namely online community users (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe Lowe, 2002). There are generally two ways of conducting a questionnaire: through a self-completion questionnaire or a type of structured interview assisted by the interviewer. A self-completion questionnaire is, as the name suggests, a questionnaire where the respondent answers the questions themselves unassisted. This is in contrast to an interviewer assisting the questionnaire process by, for example reading the questions and marking up the responses as conducted in structured interviews (Christensen et al, 2001). As the research aims to understand online users, the internet was the natural medium in order to reach the desired target group. Therefore it was clear that the questionnaire would be designed as a self-completion questionnaire given that assisting the questionnaire process through structured interviews would be difficult to execute via the internet. 3.9.2 Secondary data Secondary data is formed of paper documents such as books, special reports, government produced records, and internet sources. Secondary data can help to combine it with other facts. Therefore, secondary data it good for enhance understanding of results and to confirm results(Bradley, 2007). Secondary data called as desk research, these can be searched from various sources any time. Therefore, this research can give time and cost beneficial to researchers. On the other hand, secondary research has limitations such as irrelevant to the research. But secondary research can gives general ideas of the research theories and can help save the time. In this research, following secondary data can be used to understand and enhance research. 3.9.1. Books My research is involved consumer behaviour, brand loyalty and online communities. Therefore, theories from literatures those books will be relevant to my study. Also those theories can gives general ideas about this research. Moreover, theories about culture also can be used to understand Korean culture. Books have many advantages, for example, books are easy to access, and easy to get information which is relevant to my study. Meanwhile, printed books are heavy and sometimes only can access old ones. But, nowadays, online books are widely disseminated. Internet technology helped to access those resources without any restriction of place. Internet books are very useful to get information easily. For my research books are important to understand the theories. Books can be found in the libraries and internet. 3.9.2. Journals Previous researches such as online communities, consumer behaviour, cosmetics, and decision making processes can be used as a literature review and as a guideline for my research. These previous researches can be found in the internet journal web sites such as ebsco host. Also, written journals can be found from the libraries. Journals have many advantages; journals include recent researches and recent information. Therefore, journals can give new ideas and new information for my research. On the other hand, some journals are not be accessed easily. Thus, there is a limitation for access. But, journals are useful for research to get recent research finding and applied theories to wide my research. 3.9.3. Online database Internet sources can be categorised as online database. Information search engines such as google, yahoo, or blogs and company web sites will be used for gathering secondary data. These secondary data will help guide my study and enhance understand the research areas. 3.9.4. Statistical database Published government database, government web sites, and the companies figures will be used for secondary data. These data will give a real figures about the industry which I will study and support my research as an evidence. 3.10 Sampling and Questionnaire design 3.10.1 Sampling Sampling is the process of taking parts form a defined population in order to examine these parts, usually with the aim of making judgements about the parts of the population that have not been investigated(Bradley, 2010). Also, it has a major advantages compare with other methods which is that it usually cost saving and time saving because, it investigate small portion of the whole population. On the other hand, the major disadvantage is that the process cannot summarise every characteristic in that given population(Bradley, 2010). This study identifies the target group of respondent which are Beautynet users. Data collected from the designed questionnaires and these questionnaires is sent to the online community users through the internet. However, the sample size of this study is limited 300 users from the online community, because of limited research time and limited analysis time. Returned questionnaire is analysed using statistical methods. Statistical methods are useful to understand the relationship and the users behaviour patterns. Therefore, this method can explain the relationship between the online community and its influence purchase decision, and the relationship between the online community and brand loyalty. 3.10.2 Questionnaire design The questionnaire was designed to collect the demographic information of the respondents covering age. Social class information includes education, occupation and income, (questions number 1, 2, 3, and 4) using multiple choice questions. According to Fisher (2007) this type of questions provides respondents with a choice of three to five options and asks them to choose one. This type of questions giving unambiguous options that is mutually exclusive. Authors also applied multiple choice questions to study the respondents purchasing behavior in questions number 5 to see the frequency of purchasing makeup products, question number 6 to see how much money they spend on buying makeup and question number 7 asking respondents about type of makeup product they buy mostly of. Lastly, Likert scales was applied to ask respondents about their opinions and attitudes and to ask them to choose a position on a five-point scale between strongly agree and strongly disagree (Fisher, 2007, pp.195-196). A Likert scale was applied to question number 8-26 to study the respondents attitude toward brands and their purchase decision. 3.11 Analysis of Data In order to analyze the data collected through the survey, the numbers were first statistically sorted to facilitate the surveys different ways of thinking, and then further analyzed to find possible significant patterns. This process of making sense of the raw data was made with the help of the statistical computer software Excel, from which we could generate different tables and diagrams. The raw data, together with an overview of the results can be found in chapter four. The analysis found in this chapter had two purposes; initially t to help the readers to understand, and secondly help us as researchers. In order to make the gathered data more clear, it was coded with the help of Excel and made fit in a spreadsheet, as suggested by Saunders et al (2009). 3.12 Quality Standards Validity and reliability are the two most important quality standards in research studies which this research aims to uphold a high standard of. Validity is concerned with how accurately a variable fits a concept, that is, through determining how accurately the instrument chosen measures the features intended to be measured (Bouma Atkinson, 1999). According to Easterby-Smith, Thorpe Lowe (2002) there are three ways of estimating validity namely (1) face validity: whether the instrument or its items are plausible; (2) convergent validity: the confirmation from comparing the instrument with other independent measurement procedures; and (3) validation by known groups: which is as suggested, comparing groups otherwise known to differ on the factor in question. The questionnaire was carefully constructed based on the models used in the research in order to achieve, as certain as possible, the intended results from the questions probed. Easterby-Smith, Thorpe Lowe (2002) recommend that tests for validity and reliability should be made at the pilot stage of an investigation, before the main phase of data collection. As such a pilot study has been conducted to ensure that the web-questionnaire is constructed to examine, as closely as possible, what it should examine. This was also initiated in order to secure that the questions would be interpreted correctly by the respondents thereby testing the validity of the questionnaire. In reality, it is not known whether all the questions were interpreted as intended, although a pilot study provides useful indications of problems in advance so that miss-interpretation can be minimised. Reliability is concerned with the stability of the research (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe Lowe, 2002). As stated by Christensen et al (2001) a study should be able to be conducted a second time by other researchers and yield the same results if it has a high reliability. Since this research had been conducted with a social constructionist approach reliability is not particularly relevant to the quality standards. This is because a social constructionist approach is interpreted by the researchers knowledge during the analysis process of the research. The personality of the researcher is also an influencing factor within the results. Therefore the research is limited in its ability to yield the same results if conducted a second time. 3.11 Research Limitations The study is conducted within the limited time. Thus, the population of the target audience is limited to a certain number. Therefore there is a limitation to understand all online community members and their attitudes. Also, this study aims to find out the online community and its impact on purchase decision and brand loyalty. Therefore, this study only focused small parts of consumer behaviour. Thus, future research should be considers include some other areas of consumer behaviour and large numbers of target audience to get more reliable data. 3.12 Conclusion The researcher has chosen the positivism philosophy for the research after given explanation of different kind of philosophy. While this research is about business problem, therefore, deductive theory has chosen to explain previous theories about business matter. Researcher has used quantitative method for the analysis of the data and the reason behind choosing is the population of Beautynet is too big to do qualitative method and quantitative method can be used to understand the target audiences behaviour patterns. Primary data has collected by survey from Beautynet users, and secondary data was collected by using the relevant books, journals, Most appropriate option for conducting the research is the descriptive type of research approach. The data collected for this research is using both questionnaire and the secondary data from the books, journals, online database, and statistical database.

Shakespeares Comedy of Errors and Plautus Menaechmi and Amphitruo Ess

Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors and Plautus' Menaechmi and Amphitruo One of Shakespeare's earliest plays (its first recorded performance in December 1594), The Comedy of Errors has frequently been dismissed as pure farce, unrepresentative of the playwright's later efforts. While Errors may very well contain farcical elements, it is a complex, layered work that draws upon and reinterprets Plautine comedy. Shakespeare combines aspects of these Latin plays with biblical source material, chiefly the Acts of the Apostles and the Pauline Epistle to the Ephesians. While Menaechmi is the most frequently cited classical source for Errors, Plautus' Amphitruo is just as relevant an influence; Shakespeare's treatment of identity and its fragility is derived from this latter work. Of course, there are many other structural and thematic resonances between the three texts: each of the plays, to varying degrees, deal with the issues of identity, violence and slavery, while displaying a keen awareness of aspects of performativity, specifically the figure of the p laywright, and the role of the audience. The structural similarities between Comedy of Errors and Plautus' Menaechmi and Amphitruo are quite clear. In addition to adopting the traditional five-act structure, Shakespeare creates act divisions which comply with the Evanthian and Donatian definitions of comic structure (prologue, epitasis, protasis, catastrophe), and draws upon the classical stock of characters: the senex, servus, parasitus, matrona and meretrix. Of course, this does not mean that Shakespeare is a slavish imitator of all things Plautine. While both of the Roman source plays for Errors begin with a formal prologue, set apart from the first act, Errors instead laun... ...s.): Plautus: Five of his Plays, London: Arthur L. Humphreys, 1914. Crewe, Jonathan V.: "God or The Good Physician: The Rational Playwright in The Comedy of Errors, in Genre, XV (1/2), 1982, pp. 203-223. Dorsch, T.S (ed.): The Comedy of Errors, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Hall, Jonathan: Anxious Pleasures: Shakespearean Comedy and the Nation-State, London: Associated University Presses, 1995 Hunt, Maurice: "Slavery, English Servitude, and The Comedy of Errors," in English Literary Renaissance, 27(1): 31-55, Winter 1997. Miola, Robert S.: Shakespeare and Clasical Comedy: The Influence of Plautus and Terence, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Riehle, Wolfgang: Shakespeare, Plautus and the Humanist Tradition, Cambridge: D.S Brewer, 1990. Segal, Erich (trans.): Plautus: Three Comedies, New York and London: Harper and Row, 1969.

Biology Questions Essay

Q: Summarize the steps of the scientific method. Describe an experiment of your choice, which demonstrates the basic considerations that must be taken in the design of a good, manipulative experiment. Now that you know some details of how scientists solve problems, how might you apply that knowledge to your daily life? A: The scientific method is one of the most if not the most important method that scientists use to learn about the earth. The goal is to apply the scientific method to determine a cause and effect relationship. The scientific method is made up of five detailed steps, these steps are: I. Make an observation A scientist sees something that he cannot explain, but is very interested and would like to explain the phenomenon. II. Ask Questions After the observation is seen, the scientist comes up with a group of questions such as who, what, where, why, and how. These questions significantly help the scientist narrow down the effects of the phenomenon. III. Develop a Hypothesis A hypothesis is a proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena, either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. This hypothesis must have the ability to be either true, or false. IV. Make Predictions If the hypothesis is correct, scientists will make a prediction on how they think the experiment will end. This helps them have a starting point if the hypothesis is correct. V. Test the Predictions Experimental tests may lead to the confirmation of the prediction, or to the corruption of a prediction. If the hypothesis is not correct, the scientific method requires that the hypothesis must be modified. The prediction must agree with the experiment to believe that it is a valid description of nature. A great experiment that demonstrates the basic considerations that must be taken in the design of a good, manipulative experiment is Galileo’s leaning tower of Pisa experiment. Galileo had two balls of different masses, one heavy, and one light, and dropped them at the same time off of the leaning tower of Pisa. Galileo used the scientific method to make and prediction that their time of descent was independent of their mass. He found out that the objects fell at the same acceleration, proving hid hypothesis to be true, and also proving Aristotle’s theory of gravity to be false. I will apply the scientific method to my daily life in many ways. When I see an interesting observation that I do not know of, I will now create a mini hypothesis that applies to the observation. I will then ask some questions as in what is it? Or how does it do that? Etc. I will then either research the task at hand, or create my own demonstration on the phenomenon. If my hypothesis does not agree with the conclusion, I will re apply a new hypothesis and begin again. I enjoy learning new information and think this will be very amusing. Q: Describe the difference between anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and ecocentrism. Tell which of these positions your views of the environment most closely approximate. Why? A: Anthropocentrism is the tendency that human beings regarding themselves as the most significant entities in the universe. While Biocentrism is an ethical point of view that extends value to non-human species. Ecocentrism is used to regard a nature-centered system of values, as opposed to human and non-human centered. The position that I deem approximate to my view would be the Ecocentrism system of values. The reason I chose Ecocentrism is because in my opinion, a nature-centered sustem of values is very safe and rewarding. Too many people are human-centered and only care about themselves in this world. The Anthropocentrism people are destroying our environment on this planet by not caring about preserving this earth. If we are all nature-centered and do our best everyday to help preserve this earth, we can all change the world together and keep the air clean, the ground picked up, and the streets worry free for our future generation.

Brief History of Art Therapy

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ART THERAPY Randy M. Vick This history of art therapy focuses on the precursory and continuing trends that have shaped the theory and practice and the literature that reflects this development. Scholarship, like history, builds on the foundations laid by others. I am indebted to the authors of four other histories that I found to be particularly useful in the preparation of this chapter. Both Malchiodi (1998) and Rubin (1999) have assembled histories based on contributing trends, as did Junge and Asawa (1994) who have pro-vided extensive details on the personalities and politics involved in the formation of the American Art Therapy Association. My fourth primary source (MacGregor, 1989), while never intended as a book about art therapy, has proven to be an excel-lent â€Å"prehistory† of the field. Each of these references provided information as well as inspiration and I encourage readers to consult them for additional perspectives. Finally, it should be noted here that art therapy was not a phenomenon exclusive to the United States. Readers interested in art therapy's development in Europe should consult Waller's (1991, 1998) two books on this subject. History is like a tapestry with each colored thread contributing not only to the formation of the image but to the strength and structure of the fabric itself. Imagine for a moment a tapestry with bobbins of different-colored threads, each adding a hue that becomes part of a new creation, and we can better understand the history of this field. INFLUENCES FROM THE DISTANT PAST AND NEIGHBORING FIELDS Art therapy is a hybrid discipline based primarily on the fields of art and psychology, drawing characteristics from each parent to evolve a unique new entity. But the inter weaving of the arts and healing is hardly a new phenomenon. It seems clear that this pairing is as old as human society itself, having occurred repeatedly throughout our history across place and time (Malchiodi, 1998). The development of the profession of art therapy can be seen as the formal application of a long-standing human tradi-tion influenced by the intellectual and social trends of the 20th century (Junge & Asawa, 1994). 1 From the Realms or Art Art making is an innate human tendency, so much so it has been argued that, like speech and tool making, this activity could be used to define our species (Dissana-yake, 1992). In his book, The Discovery of the Art of the Insane, MacGregor (1989) presents a history of the interplay of art and psychology spanning the last 300 years. This history covers theories of genius and insanity, biographies of â€Å"mad† artists, depictions of madness by artists, and the various attempts to reach an understanding of the potential art has as an aid to mental health treatment and diagnosis. In 1922, German psychiatrist Hans Prinzhorn (1922/1995) published The Artistry of the Men-tally III, a book that depicted and described the artistic productions of residents of in-sane asylums across Europe. This work challenged both psychiatric and fine arts professionals to reconsider their notions of mental illness and art (MacGregor, 1989). Even today, debate rages within the field variously titled outsider art/art brut/visionary art/folk art as experts struggle to place work by self-taught artists (some of whom have experienced mental illness) within the art historical canon (Borum, 1993/1994; Russell, 2002). Contemporary writers from art therapy and other disciplines continue to explore the notion of art practice for the purpose of personal exploration and growth (Alien, 1995; Cameron & Bryan, 1992; C. Moon, 2002) and to reevaluate the traditional boundaries between personal and public art (Lachman-Chapin et al. , 1999; Sigler, 1993; Spaniol, 1990; Vick, 2000). Medicine, Health, and Rehabilitation Hospitals have long served as important incubators for the field of art therapy. For better or worse, medical model concepts such as diagnosis, disease, and treatment have had a strong influence on the development of most schools of thought within Western psychotherapy, including art therapy. While psychiatry has always been the medical specialty most closely allied with the field, art therapists have worked with patients being treated for AIDS, asthma, burns, cancer, chemical dependency, trauma, tuberculosis, and other medical and rehabilitation needs (Malchiodi 1999a, 1999b). Our understanding of the interplay between biochemistry, mental status, and creativity continues to evolve and a new medical specialty, arts medicine, has recently emerged 2 (Malchiodi, 1998). All this seems to suggest that art therapy will continue to have a role in exploring the connections between body and mind. TRENDS IN 19TH- AND 20TH-CENTURY PSYCHOLOGY For much of human history mental illness was regarded with fear and misunderstanding as a manifestation of either divine or demonic forces. Reformers such as Rush in the United States and Pinel in France made great strides in creating a more humane environment for their patients. Freud, Kris, and others contributed to this rehumanization by theorizing that rather than being random nonsense, the productions of fantasy revealed significant information about the unique inner world of their maker (MacGregor, 1989; Rubin, 1999). Building on these theories, many writers began to examine how a specific sort of creative product—art—could be under-stood as an illustration of mental health or disturbance (Anastasi & Foley, 1941; Arnheim, 1954; Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). Other authors began recognizing the po-tential art has as a tool within treatment (Winnicott, 1971). Soon enough, the term â€Å"art therapy† began to be used to describe a form of psychotherapy that placed art practices and interventions alongside talk as the central modality of treatment (Naumburg, 1950/1973). The significance psychoanalytic writers placed on early childhood experiences made the crossover of these theories into education an easy one (Junge & Asawa, 1994). Some progressive educators placed particular emphasis on the role art played in the overall development of children (Cane, 1951/1983; Kellogg, 1969; Lowenfeld, 1987; Uhlin, 1972/1984). This trend toward the therapeutic application of art within educational settings continues today (Anderson, 1978/1992; Bush, 1997; Henley, 1992). PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND RESEARCH In addition to psychoanalysis and the rehumanization of people with mental illness, one of the strongest trends to emerge within modern psychology has been the focus on standardized methods of diagnostic assessment and research. Whether discussing the work of a studio artist or the productions of a mentally ill individual, Kris (1952) argues that they both engage in the same psychic process, that is, â€Å"the placing of an inner experience, an inner image, into the outside world† (p. 115). This â€Å"method of projection† became the conceptual foundation for a dazzling array of so-called projective drawing assessments that evolved in psychology during the 20th century (Hammer, 1958/1980). These simple paper-and-pencil â€Å"tests,† with their formalized procedures and standardized methods of interpretation, became widely used in the evaluation and diagnosis of children and adults and are still employed to a lesser degree tod ay (though often with revamped purpose and procedure). Two parallel themes from this era are the relatively unstructured methods of art assessment (Elkisch, 1948; Shaw, 1934) and the various approaches to interpreting these productions (Machover, 1949/1980). The impact of psychoanalysis on the early development of art therapy was pro-found. Hammer's (1958/1980) classic book on drawing as a projective device illustrates the diversity within this area and the inclusion of two chapters on art therapy by pioneering art therapist Margaret Naumburg demonstrates the crossover of influences. Many of the more common stereotypes about art therapy (specific, assigned drawings; finger painting; and the role of the therapist in divining the â€Å"true meaning† of the drawings) can, in fact, be traced directly to this era. Nearly all the major art therapy writers from this time developed their own methods of assessment consisting of batteries of art tasks with varying levels of structure (Kramer & Schehr, 1983; Kwiatkowska, 1978; Rubin, 1978/1984; Ulman & Dachinger, 1975/1996). Even today, the notion that artworks in some way reflect the psychic experience of the artist is a fundamental concept in art therapy. Despite this common history, there are distinctions between the approach to assessment used in psychology and that found in art therapy. The key difference is the art therapy perspective that the making and viewing of the art have inherent therapeutic potential for the client, a position not necessarily held by psychometricians. In addition, art therapists tend to use more varied and expressive materials and to deemphasize formalized verbal directives and stress the role of clients as interpreters of their own work. Finally, art therapists are also quite likely to improvise on the pro-tocol of standardized assessments to uit a particular clinical purpose (Mills & Goodwin, 1991). An emerging theme in the literature is the unique role the creative arts therapies can play in the assessment and evaluation of clients (Bruscia, 1988; Feder & Feder, 1998). Contemporary developers of art therapy assessments have abandoned ortho-dox psychoanalytic approaches in favor of methods that emphasize the expressive potential 4 of the tasks and materials (Cohen, Hammer, & Singer, 1988; Cox Frame, 1993; Gantt & Tabone, 1997; Landgarten , 1993; Silver, 1978/1989). Early art therapy researchers also looked to psychology and embraced its empiri-cal approach for their research (Kwiatkowska, 1978). More recently, models from the behavioral sciences and other fields have been used as resources in conducting art therapy research (Kaplan, 2000; McNiff, 1998; Wadeson, 1992). THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART THERAPY LITERATURE The development of any discipline is best traced through the evolution of that field's literature. The historian's convention of artificially dividing time into segments is employed here to illustrate three phases of growth in the profession of art therapy. Classical Period (1940s to 1970s) In the middle of the 20th century a largely independent assortment of individuals began to use the term â€Å"art therapy† in their writings to describe their work with clients. In doing so, these pioneering individuals began to define a discipline that was distinct from other, older professions. Because there was no formal art therapy training to be had, these early writers were trained in other fields and mentored by psychiatrists, analysts, and other mental health professionals. The four leading writers universally recognized for their contributions to the development of the field during this period are Margaret Naumburg, Edith Kramer, Hanna Kwiatkowska, and Elinor Ulman. The lasting impact of their original works on the field is demonstrated by the fact that their writings continue to be used as original sources in contemporary art therapy literature. More than any other author, Naumburg is seen as the primary founder of American art therapy and is frequently referred to as the â€Å"Mother of Art Therapy† (see Junge & Asawa, 1994, p. 22). Through her early work in the innovative Walden School, which she founded (along with her sister Florence Cane), and later in psychi-atric settings she developed her ideas and, in the 1940s, began to write about what was to become known as art therapy (Detre et al. , 1983). Familiar with the ideas of both Freud and Jung, Naumburg (1966/1987) conceived her â€Å"dynamically oriented art therapy† to be largely analogous to the psychoanalytic practices of the day. The clients' art productions were viewed as symbolic communication of unconscious material in a direct, uncensored, and concrete form that Naumburg (1950/1973) argued would aid in the resolution of the transference. While Naumburg borrowed heavily from the techniques of psychoanalytic practice, Kramer took a different approach by adapting concepts from Freud's personality theory to explain the art therapy process. Her â€Å"art as therapy† approach emphasizes the intrinsic therapeutic potential in the art-making process and the central role the defense mechanism of sublimation plays in this experience (Kramer, 1971/1993). Kramer's (1958, 1971/1993) work in therapeutic schools (as opposed to Naumburg's psychiatric emphasis) allows for more direct application of her ideas to educational settings. Ulman's most outstanding contributions to the field have been as an editor and writer. She founded The Bulletin of Art Therapy in 1961 (The American Journal of Art Therapy after 1970) when no other publication of its kind existed (Junge &c Asawa, 1994). In addition, Ulman (along with her coeditor Dachinger) (1975/1996) published the first book of collected essays on art therapy that served as one of the few texts in the field for many years. Her gift as a writer was to precisely synthesize and articulate complex ideas. In her essay â€Å"Art Therapy: Problems of Definition,† Ulman (1975/1996) compares and contrasts Naumburg's â€Å"art psychotherapy† and Kramer's â€Å"art as therapy† models so clearly that it continues to be the definitive presentation of this core theoretical continuum. The last of these four remarkable women, Kwiatkowska, made her major contributions in the areas of research and family art therapy. She brought together her experiences in various psychiatric settings in a book that became the foundation for working with families through art (Kwiatkowska, 1978). Like Kramer, she had fled Europe at the time of World War II adding to the list of emigre thinkers who influenced the development of mental health disciplines in the United States. She also coauthored a short book that helped introduce the field of art therapy to the general public (Ulman, Kramer, & Kwiatkowska, 1978). Each of these pioneers lectured widely on the topic of art therapy and served as some of the field's first educators. It was also during this period that the first formal programs with degrees in art therapy were offered (Junge Asawa, 1994; Levick, Goldman, & Fink, 1967). Finally, it is important not to forget the other early pioneers working in other parts of the country, such as Mary Huntoon at the Menninger Clinic (Wix, 2000), who made contributions to the developing profession as well. 6 Middle Years: Other Pioneering Writers (1970s to Mid-1980s) The 1970s through the mid-1980s saw the emergence of an increasing number of publications that presented a broader range of applications and conceptual perspectives (Betensky, 1973; Landgarten, 1981; Levick, 1983; McNiff, 1981; Rhyne, 1973/ 1995; Robbins & Sibley, 1976; Rubin, 1978/1984; Wadeson, 1980), although psychoanalysis remained a dominant influence. The development of the literature was also enriched during this period with the introduction of two new journals: Art Psychotherapy in 1973 (called The Arts in Psychotherapy after 1980) and Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, in 1983 (Rubin, 1999). The in-creasing number of publications, along with the founding of the American Art Therapy Association in 1969, evolved the professional identity of the art therapist, credentials, and the role of art therapists vis-a-vis related professionals (Shoemaker et al. 1976). Contemporary Art Therapy Theories (Mid-1980s to Present) The art therapy literature continues to grow. In 1974, Gantt and Schmal published an annotated bibliography of sources relating to the topic of art therapy from 1940-1973 (1,175 articles, books, and papers), yet Rubin (1999) notes that in that same year there were only 12 books written by art therapists, a number that crawled to 19 some 10 years later. By the mid-1980s this pace began to incre ase so that there are now more than 100 titles available. Rubin (1999) also speculates that art therapists may be more comfortable with an intuitive approach than other mental health practitioners because as artists they â€Å"pride themselves on their innate sensitivities, and tend to be antiauthoritarian and anti-theoretical† (p. 180). Recently, approximately 21% of art therapists surveyed by the American Art Therapy Association described their primary theoretical orientation as â€Å"eclectic,† the single largest percentage reported (Elkins & Stovall, 2000). This position is in keeping with one delineated by Wadeson (in Rubin, 1987/2001) and should not be surprising in a field that itself draws from a variety of disciplines. The next five most frequently reported models: psychodynamic (10. 1%), Jungian (5. 4%), object relations (4. 6%), art as therapy (4. 5%), and psychoanalytic (3. 0%) all place a strong emphasis on intrapsychic dynamics, and this cumulative 27. 6% suggests that much contemporary practice is still informed by generally psychodynamic concepts (Elkins & Stovall, 7 2000). In a landmark book, Approaches to Art Therapy first published in 1987, Rubin (1987/2001) brought together essays by authors representing the diversity of theoretical positions within the field. Perspectives from these and other relevant sources are briefly summarized here. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES The ideas of Freud and his followers (see Chapter 2, this volume) have been part of art therapy since the earliest days, although contemporary writers are more likely to apply terms such as â€Å"transference† and â€Å"the defense mechanisms† to articulate a position rather than employ classic psychoanalytic techniques ith any degree of orthodoxy. Kramer, Rubin, Ulman, and Wilson (all cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) and Levick (1983) all use psychoanalytic language and concepts. Interpretations of the newer developments in psychoanalysis such as the theories of Klein (Weir, 1990), self psychology (Lachman-Chapin) and object relations theory (Robbins) can also be found in the art t herapy literature (both cited in Rubin, 1987/2001). With his emphasis on images from the unconscious, it was natural for Jung's concepts of analytical and archetypal psychology to cross over into art therapy (see Chapter 2, this volume). Work by Edwards and Wallace (both cited in Rubin, 1987/ 2001), McConeghey (1986), and Schaverian (1992) all reflect this emphasis. HUMANISTIC APPROACHES Elkins and Stovall (2000) suggest that only a small number of art therapists operate from a humanistic position (among humanistic, Gestalt, existential, and client centered; the highest response was to the first category with 2. 9). Yet if these approaches can be defined as sharing â€Å"an optimistic view of human nature and of the human condition, seeing people in a process of growth and development, with the potential to take responsibility for their fate† (Rubin, 1987/2001, p. 119), these figures belie a sentiment held by many art therapists (see Chapter 3, this volume). Garai (cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) has written from a general humanistic position, Rogers (1993) and Silverstone (1997) use a person-centered model, and Dreikurs (1986) and Garlock (cited in Rubin, 1987) have adapted ideas first articulated by Alfred Adier. Other models that fall under the humanistic heading include existential (B. 8 Moon, 1990/1995), phenomenological (Betensky, 1995), and gestalt (Rhyne, 1973/1995) approaches. LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHES Perhaps because they are perceived to be mechanistic, those psychological theories that emphasize learning tend to be less popular with art therapists. In the Elkins and Stovall (2000) survey, cognitive-behavioral (see Chapter 6, this volume), cognitive, developmental (Chapter 8, this volume), and behavioral received an ndorsement of over 2%. Yet there are art therapy authors whose work has been informed by these theories. Silver (2000) has written extensively on assessment using a cognitive approach, and the work of Lusebrink (1990) and Nucho (1987) is based in general systems theory. Art therapists working with children with emotional and developmental disabilities have also adapted concepts from developmental (Aach-Feldman & Kunkle-Miller, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001; Willia ms & Wood, 1975) and behavioral psychology (Roth, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001). FAMILY THERAPY AND OTHER APPROACHES A number of writers (Landgarten, 1987; Linesch, 1993; Riley & Malchiodi, 1994; Sobol, 1982) have built on Kwiatkowska's early family work, particularly in California where art therapists become licensed as marriage and family therapists. Riley (1999) also incorporates concepts from narrative therapy into her work (Chapter 5, this volume). Relational (Dalley, Rifkind, & Terry, 1993) and feminist (Hogan, 1997) approaches question the hierarchy in the client/therapist relationship and empower-ing the client and have also shaped contemporary art therapy practice. Publications by Horovitz-Darby (1994), Farrelly-Hansen (2001), and McNiff (1992) reflect an emphasis on spiritual and philosophical concepts over psychological theory. Frank-lin, Farrelly-Hansen, Marek, Swan-Foster, and Wallingford (2000) describe a transpersonal approach to art therapy. Alien (1992) called for a reversal of the perceived trend in overemphasizing the clinical orientation and encouraged art therapists to refocus on their artist identity. Writings by Lachman-Chapin (1983); Knill (1995), who espouses an expressive arts therapies approach (Chapter 8, this volume); and C. Moon (2002) reflect this studio approach to theory and practice. 9 CONCLUSION Every art therapist knows there is much to be learned from the process of making an artwork as well as from standing back and viewing the finished product. The tapes-try that is art therapy is not a dusty relic hung in a museum but a living work in progress. There is pleasure in admiring the work that has already been done and excitement in the weaving. It is my hope that readers can appreciate the processes and the products that have shaped this profession. 10